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Por qué la calidad del aire puede ser peligrosa aunque el cielo se vea despejado

Se espera que los incendios forestales lleven aire insalubre a más de 120 millones de personas este fin de semana, pero el humo y sus partículas tóxicas no siempre son claramente visibles. En algunos lugares, el horizonte queda cubierto por evidentes tonos anaranjados anormales y un tenue olor a quemado. En otros, el cielo puede no mostrar ninguna señal visible de que algo anda mal en la atmósfera, pero eso no significa necesariamente que el aire sea seguro.

“El hecho de que hoy el cielo se vea un poco menos marrón o anaranjado no significa necesariamente que el humo ya no esté ahí”, dijo Dan Westervelt, científico atmosférico de la Universidad de Columbia.

La visibilidad del humo puede verse afectada por varios factores, entre ellos los compuestos químicos y las partículas que contiene, el tiempo que la columna de humo ha permanecido en la atmósfera, las condiciones meteorológicas y el ángulo del Sol.

Aunque el ojo humano no siempre puede percibir el peligro, los monitores de calidad del aire pueden medir con precisión la cantidad de contaminantes presentes en la atmósfera. Por eso es importante seguir las recomendaciones de seguridad de las autoridades locales —como permanecer en interiores, utilizar filtros de aire y usar una mascarilla N95— incluso si el cielo parece despejado.

Los científicos afirman que el humo de los incendios forestales es mucho más de lo que se puede ver a simple vista y que aquello que no se puede observar también puede causar daños.

Cuando un árbol arde, el calor descompone el material vegetal y libera gases inflamables. Algunos de esos gases reaccionan con el oxígeno y se convierten en dióxido de carbono y vapor de agua. Sin embargo, si el incendio no dispone de suficiente oxígeno para quemarlos por completo, puede producir un humo más denso, cargado de incontables partículas diminutas y compuestos químicos.

El característico color amarillo, anaranjado y marrón del humo de los incendios forestales proviene de un grupo de contaminantes conocido como “carbono marrón”, un término que engloba miles de compuestos, explicó Westervelt. Estos contaminantes tiñen el cielo porque absorben la luz solar en longitudes de onda más cortas —las responsables de los tonos azules y la radiación ultravioleta— y permiten que las longitudes de onda más largas, asociadas con los colores rojo, amarillo y naranja, atraviesen la atmósfera y lleguen a nuestros ojos.

El carbono marrón forma parte de una categoría de contaminantes conocida como material particulado 2,5 (PM2,5), llamado así porque sus partículas miden aproximadamente 2,5 micrómetros de diámetro, unas 30 veces menos que el grosor de un cabello humano. Estas partículas finas pueden evadir las defensas naturales del organismo y penetrar profundamente en los pulmones, lo que puede provocar problemas respiratorios o cardiovasculares.

Las partículas PM2,5 representan una de las amenazas más graves para la salud, de ahí las advertencias para permanecer en interiores con sistemas adecuados de filtración de aire. Además, pueden desplazarse cientos de kilómetros y permanecer suspendidas en la atmósfera durante días o incluso semanas.

Los incendios forestales también liberan gases de hidrocarburos como benceno, tolueno, xilenos y etilbenceno, que “son contaminantes atmosféricos peligrosos por sí mismos”, señaló Westervelt. Sin embargo, explicó que esos gases pueden experimentar transformaciones químicas adicionales en la atmósfera y convertirse en carbono marrón y partículas PM2,5.

El humo también contiene una categoría más grande de contaminantes conocida como material particulado 10 (PM10), cuyas partículas son aproximadamente siete veces más pequeñas que el grosor de un cabello humano. Aunque siguen siendo microscópicas y también pueden atravesar la nariz y la garganta para afectar el sistema respiratorio y cardiovascular, estas partículas caen al suelo con mayor rapidez por efecto de la gravedad o la lluvia. Por ello, suelen permanecer suspendidas entre horas y algunos días, concentrándose y reduciendo la visibilidad cerca del lugar donde se originó el incendio.

No todos los contaminantes generados por un incendio forestal se manifiestan con color. A medida que el humo se desplaza, puede perder su tonalidad sin perder sus propiedades químicas. En algunos casos, incluso puede volverse más tóxico con el paso del tiempo.

Ese es el caso del carbono marrón. Los fotones de la luz solar pueden romper los enlaces químicos de estas partículas y transformar su composición mediante un proceso conocido como oxidación, explicó Westervelt. Como resultado, la columna de humo puede parecer más clara porque ya no absorbe la luz de la misma manera.

Ese proceso de oxidación “puede desempeñar un papel importante en cuán marrón es el carbono marrón, por decirlo de alguna manera, pero también modifica su toxicidad”, dijo Westervelt.

Ese humo aparentemente más claro también puede favorecer la formación de otros contaminantes nocivos que no tienen color ni olor. Uno de ellos es el ozono a nivel del suelo, un gas tóxico que actúa sobre los pulmones de forma similar a una quemadura solar. No se produce directamente por la quema de vegetación, pero sus concentraciones suelen aumentar durante los incendios forestales porque el humo contiene gases como óxidos de nitrógeno y compuestos orgánicos volátiles, que reaccionan con la luz solar y el calor para formar ozono.

Según la Agencia de Protección Ambiental (EPA, por sus siglas en inglés), este compuesto altamente reactivo puede inflamar los pulmones, provocar la contracción de los músculos de las vías respiratorias y hacer que respirar resulte doloroso. (Cuando el ozono se encuentra en las capas altas de la atmósfera, en cambio, ayuda a protegernos de la radiación ultravioleta dañina).

Otro gas invisible que puede formarse después de un incendio forestal mediante un proceso similar es el formaldehído. Este compuesto puede irritar los ojos, la nariz, la garganta y los pulmones, y también puede provocar cáncer, lo que sugiere que la exposición prolongada al humo persistente de los incendios forestales podría volverse más tóxica con el tiempo.

También puede ocurrir lo contrario: el cielo puede verse marrón o anaranjado sin que eso afecte el aire que respiramos. Todo depende de la ubicación de la columna de humo.

Cuando el humo permanece a gran altura, puede actuar como un filtro. Si se mantiene varios cientos de metros por encima de la superficie, explicó Westervelt, es posible que no tenga un efecto inmediato importante sobre la calidad del aire.

“Cuando está a varios cientos de metros de altura en la atmósfera, no se observan índices de calidad del aire tan elevados”, señaló Westervelt. “Cuanto más cerca está de nosotros, mayor será su impacto”.

Todo esto explica por qué es tan importante la red de monitores de calidad del aire que mide las partículas a nivel del suelo, incluidas las PM2,5 y el ozono. La mejor forma de saber si se está respirando aire perjudicial es consultar los informes oficiales sobre la calidad del aire, elaborados a partir de estos sensores y disponibles en AirNow.

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What to know about Trump’s claim that over 250K non-citizens are registered to vote

▶ Watch Video: DHS secretary Mullin claims 250,000 noncitizens are registered to vote in the U.S. Washington — Homeland Security Secretary Markwayne Mullin on Friday continued to amplify President Trump's assertion that more than a quarter of a million non-citizens were registered to vote in four states, though the administration has yet to provide details of how it arrived at that figure.In a news conference following Mr. Trump's address to the nation Thursday that focused on election security, Mullin said the alleged 250,000 non-citizens that it believes were registered to vote were in California, Pennsylvania, New Jersey and Nevada. Those four states have not complied with the Trump administration's demands to provide voter data to the federal government.  In 23 states that are working with the Trump administration and ran their voter records through an overhauled centralized federal database, Mullin said an additional 28,000 non-citizens were registered to vote.But CBS News found that the claims from Mr. Trump and Mullin about the prevalence of non-citizens registering to vote could be exaggerated. The estimate that there are 250,000 non-citizen registered voters across four states was based on an analysis of commercial databases, a White House official told reporters Thursday. That method is likely to lead to false positives, significantly overestimating the number of potential non-citizens on voter rolls, David Becker, executive director and founder of the Center for Election Innovation and Research, said during a CBS News special report Thursday."I guarantee you, that data includes a ton of people, maybe even a majority of people, who are absolutely eligible voters, and states would probably be breaking the law if they remove those voters from the rolls," Becker said.The Center for Election Innovation and Research has found that allegations of non-citizens casting ballots or registering to vote typically "appear to arise from misunderstandings, mischaracterizations, or outright fabrications about complex voter data." When those claims are scrutinized and investigated, the number of alleged instances of non-citizens identified on voter rolls drops, the group said. Confirmed cases of non-citizens voting are exceedingly rare.The president has long claimed without evidence that the 2020 election was "rigged" against him, though dozens of lawsuits seeking to reverse the outcomes in key battleground states were tossed out, and the Justice Department said at the time there was no evidence of widespread fraud. Still, amid the president's grievances about his loss to former President Joe Biden nearly six years ago, Mr. Trump has tried to expand the federal government's role in U.S. elections across his second term. As part of those efforts, Mr. Trump has signed two executive orders that would tighten the rules for mail-in ballots and require documentary proof of citizenship to register to vote in federal elections, among other requirements, though they have been blocked by the courts. And the Justice Department is suing dozens of states to hand over their voter rolls. The president has also been pressuring Congress to pass the SAVE America Act, which would require Americans to show a photo ID to cast a ballot and present proof of citizenship in person to register to vote.His election security-focused speech comes months before the November midterm elections, which will determine whether Republicans maintain their control of the House and Senate. Here is what to know about the Trump administration's claims about non-citizen voting:How does the 250,000 figure compare to the total number of registered voters?Neither Mullin nor Mr. Trump said that the 250,000 non-citizens who are allegedly registered to vote in the four states actually cast ballots. The administration has also not made public its methodology for that estimate. Still, that figure represents a small percentage of the total number of Americans who were registered to vote in the last two general elections.A survey conducted by the U.S. Election Assistance Commission found that there were more than 209 million active registered voters for the 2020 contest, and more than 161 million people cast ballots that were counted.For the 2024 general election, the Election Assistance Commission said there were more than 211 million active registered voters and more than 158 million ballots were cast and counted.That means the 250,000 non-citizens that the Trump administration claims are registered to vote in Nevada, California, New Jersey and Pennsylvania are roughly 0.1% of all registered voters nationwide. The figure represents 0.6% of the nearly 40 million people who were registered to vote across the four states in question in 2024.Federal law prohibits non-citizens from voting in federal elections, and no state allows non-citizens to vote in statewide contests, according to the Bipartisan Policy Center. Municipalities in just three states and the District of Columbia allow non-citizens to vote in local elections, like for school board.How have the 4 states responded? The Department of Homeland Security said Mullin sent letters to the secretaries of state for California, New Jersey, Nevada and Pennsylvania that called on them to "confirm their intentions to collaborate with DHS in order to ensure free, fair, and honest elections."It claimed that "preliminary reviews" of the four states' records showed that there may be up to 190,832 non-citizens registered to vote in California, 35,152 in New Jersey, 15,903 in Nevada and 14,576 in Pennsylvania.In response to the administration's claims, Pennsylvania Secretary of State Al Schmidt, a Republican, said the state's voter rolls are "properly maintained and updated." But he said the state will review any information provided by DHS to evaluate its claims."In Pennsylvania, every voter must take steps to verify their identity before they cast a ballot, including providing proper identification every time they register to vote, vote by mail, or vote at a new polling place," he said in a statement. "All evidence has shown that noncitizen voting is extremely rare across the country, including in Pennsylvania."Nevada Secretary of State Francisco Aguilar, a Democrat, refuted the Trump administration's allegations that up to 15,903 non-citizens were registered to vote in the state."These numbers are wildly speculative at best and the Department of Homeland Security hasn't shared anything that backs it up," he said.According to data provided to The New York Times, of Nevada's 2.1 million active registered voters, just 138 did not provide a state driver's license or Social Security number when they registered to vote. Those 138 voters, though, may have used another acceptable form of ID to register.California Secretary of State Shirley Weber, a Democrat, said her state will review the federal government's methodology for identifying the purported 190,000 non-citizen voters to assess its claims. But she expressed skepticism."We welcome legitimate best practices that comply with state and federal law while protecting Californians' personal information," she said in a statement. "However, the information provided during the President's remarks and on the White House website, do not inspire any level of confidence in the methodology used or the conclusions reached."What have other state audits found?Several other states have conducted audits of their voter rolls in recent years and found some potential non-citizens were registered to vote, though such instances are extremely rare.In Georgia, a citizenship audit done in 2024 found that just 20 of the state's 8.2 million registered voters were not citizens, according to Secretary of State Brad Raffensperger, a Republican. An additional 156 people required further investigation into their citizenship status.Ohio also conducted a citizenship verification audit in 2024 and identified 597 non-citizens who had registered to vote, according to Secretary of State Frank LaRose. Of those, 138 people appeared to have cast ballots and were referred to the attorney general. The state said there were roughly 8.2 million registered voters in Ohio.In Texas, a state with more than 18.6 million registered voters as of the 2024 presidential election, officials found 2,724 potential non-citizens who were registered to vote, according to its secretary of state.Louisiana identified 390 non-citizens who had registered to vote after conducting an investigation into the citizenship status of people on its voter rolls. Secretary of State Nancy Landry said in September that of those 390 non-citizens, 79 voted in at least one election. As of July 1, there were more than 2.9 million people registered to vote in Louisiana, according to data from the state.Iowa identified 277 confirmed non-citizens who were registered to vote and found 35 cast ballots that were counted in the 2024 general election. Five non-citizens tried to cast ballots but they were rejected. There were more than 2.1 million people registered to vote in Iowa as of July 2, according to data from the secretary of state.What actions has the Trump administration taken?Since Mr. Trump returned to the White House, his administration has mounted a multi-pronged push aimed at non-citizen voting. Claims that people who are not U.S. citizens are registered to cast ballots underpin the president's push for Congress to pass the SAVE America Act, a package of voting regulations.The president signed an executive order last year that seeks to require documentary proof of citizenship to register to vote. But federal courts have prohibited the Trump administration from implementing that requirement, finding that the Constitution does not give the president any specific authority to regulate federal elections.DHS also overhauled its Systematic Alien Verification for Entitlement, or SAVE, system, to effectively allow state and local officials to verify citizenship or immigration status of people trying to register to vote.Several states have said they ran their voter records through the SAVE database to identify non-citizens on their voter rolls.The modified SAVE system draws on records from the Social Security Administration and DHS, and was created in response to Mr. Trump's executive order. But a federal judge in Washington, D.C., found the Trump administration acted unlawfully when it created the centralized database, and said the clearinghouse had been used by some states to incorrectly remove U.S. citizens from their voter rolls.The Justice Department has also sought to obtain full copies of voter registration lists from nearly all 50 states and Washington, D.C. More than a dozen states have cooperated with the Trump administration in its requests for their unredacted voter rolls, according to the Brennan Center for Justice.Meanwhile, the Justice Department has filed lawsuits against 30 states and D.C. in an effort to force them to turn over the requested information, which includes voters' names, addresses, partial Social Security numbers and driver's license numbers.Judges across the country have dismissed 16 of those lawsuits. One federal appeals court so far has said that the Justice Department is not entitled to the unredacted voter registration list from Michigan.
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